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Introduction
Corporate social responsibility is a concept that has gained massive popularity over the recent past as corporations try to give back to society. According to Hategan, Sirghi, Curea-Pitorac, and Hategan (2018), successful business entities have realized that they can achieve sustainable success if they have the support of the immediate community. They rely on the community for their employees, customers, suppliers, and general security. Their normal operations also affect the community in terms of pollution, occupation of space that would have otherwise been used in other activities. However, they also contribute to the development of these communities in terms of the creation of employment and infrastructural development. When a community supports such corporations by withstanding the inconveniences and the socio-environmental evils, it is only fair for the firm to give back to society.
Corporate social responsibility is a deliberate effort by these corporations to support the immediate community through various initiatives which may not bring them direct profits. Besides creating products that people need, providing jobs opportunities, and paying taxes to support the government CSR is another major business practice that a firm can use to demonstrate to its customers, employees, suppliers, and the government that it is concerned about the well-being of the society. It is an indication that the firm appreciates the fact that its sustainable growth is intertwined with the growth of the immediate community. In this paper, the researcher seeks to conduct a historical analysis of corporate social responsibility, its relevance in modern society, and various approaches that different entities use in its implementation.
Understanding the Concept of Corporate Social Responsibility
The need for companies to be socially responsible to themselves, shareholders, employees, the government, and the community-led to the emergence of the concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR). Gouda (2017) defines corporate social responsibility as a self-regulating business model that helps a company be socially accountable to itself, its stakeholders, and the public through philanthropic initiatives (p. 66). Other scholars have defined CSR in different ways, but the above definition identifies critical pillars of this concept. First, it explains that CSR is self-regulated. It means that the government or any other external stakeholder cannot compel a firm to engage in such initiatives. It is upon the management of the firm to realize that it has a responsibility to the immediate community and act accordingly.
When the firm is forced to act by external stakeholders, such initiatives may not be classified as CSR. The definition also identifies the need to be socially accountable to various stakeholders. The primary goal for every firm is to make profits, as Chae and Park (2018) observe. However, in this case, a company is expected to make a shift from economic goals to social goals. It needs to be socially responsible to society by engaging in practices that will be of benefit to people without necessarily getting profits from these initiatives. The need to engage in these non-profit-making initiatives is demonstrated in the last part of the definition, which emphasizes the need for these activities to be philanthropic in nature.
Large multinational corporations have come up with elaborate models for corporate social responsibility because of its growing significance. According to Carroll (2015), when the concept emerged in the 1950s, many large corporations were interested in addressing some of the socio-environmental evils associated with their operations, such as massive environmental pollution (Aguinis & Glavas, 2019). Although this is still the goal for most of these corporations, CSR has gained a massive significance as a way of endearing a firm to its customers. People are so bombarded with massive advertisements on various platforms that they have learned to ignore the message. They consider such promotional campaigns as interruptions to their entertainment. CSR offers a new approach for a firm to develop a bond with its customers and the immediate community. Instead of bombarding them with unsolicited information, this initiative creates a platform where a firm can engage the community in constructive debates and activities. It may be through tree planting to address perennial flooding and landslides, supporting needy students within the community, helping the elderly, supporting the healthcare sector through donations, or supporting correctional facilities.
CSR initiatives make a radical shift from the normal operations focused on making profits and expanding a firms operations to a new approach of creating a sustainable relationship with the locals (Melovic, Rogic, Cerovic, Dudic, & Gregus, 2019). It is a deliberate reminder to the community that the firm understands that its growth is closely linked to the growth of the community. As Li, Khalili, and Cheng, W. (2019) observe, it offers a firm a perfect opportunity to strengthen its brand within that community. Potential customers will start identifying with the firm. Every time they come across the brand name, they are reminded of the positive initiatives that the firm has undertaken in the past. Herrera and Heras-Rosas (2020) believe that CSR has also gained relevance among large corporations out of the appreciation that the environment will no longer be sustainable if the current rate of pollution is not addressed. Firms like Coca-Cola Company now understand that plastic bottles used to package their beverages are choking the environment. If nothing is done to address the problem, their business model will no longer be sustainable, and as such, they may be forced to stop their operations. As such, the CSR initiative is a deliberate effort to ensure that their operations are sustainable.
History of Corporate Social Responsibility
Corporate social responsibility is a relatively new concept when compared with other business functions such as accounting, finance, and marketing. Since its inception, CSR has evolved over the years because of the changing environmental forces. According to Dyduch and Krasodomska (2017), as new socio-economic, political, and ecological needs emerge, firms are finding it necessary to redefine their approaches to CSR to ensure that they remain relevant by having the right impact on the targeted population. In this section, the focus is to review the historical transformation of the concept from the time of its inception to modern society.
Social Practices and Initiatives before 1950
The concept of corporate social responsibility was non-existent before 1950 but some elements of it can be found as early as the late 1800s, as Carroll (2015) observes. However, large corporations, especially those in the manufacturing and agricultural sectors were under pressure because of the perceived social evils. Diez-Cañamero, Bishara, Otegi-Olaso, Minguez, and Fernández (2020) explain that in Europe, many factories were criticized for hiring underage children, hence denying them the opportunity to go to school. By 1900, many reformers had started various initiatives to fight child labor and poor payment of workers that forced parents to bring their children along to work just to make ends meet. These firms were accused of taking a new approach to slavery. Paying workers minimal salaries ensured that they will be forced to work for long hours and every single day of the week just to get their basic needs.
These welfare groups brought to the attention of the political class the social evils of the companies and the need for them to reform their policies. Shin, Hur, and Kang, (2016) argue that one of the earliest social responsibilities that most of these large corporations embraced was to avoid hiring children. It became evident to them that these children needed time to go to school and sharpen their skills so that they can become better employees in the future. Another major initiative that these corporations embraced was to improve wages for their employees (Kim, Park, & Lee, 2018). They realized that it was their responsibility to pay their workers an amount of money that would enable them to meet their basic needs without the need to force their children to help them at work. According to García-Sánchez and Martínez-Ferrero (2018), these initiatives may not meet the criteria of corporate social responsibility because these companies were pressured to do so. However, they marked an important milestone where firms realized that they could not focus on making profits any longer and ignore the wellbeing of their employees. It marked a new era where large corporations understood the need to be responsible to all their stakeholders.
The emergence of the Concept of CSR in the 1950s
Studies show that the concept of corporate social responsibility took shape in the 1950s. According to Carroll (2015), during the period from 1953, there was a sudden awareness among large corporations that they had a role to play in empowering local communities through various initiatives. These corporations started by donating to charitable organizations. This was coming soon after the Second World War when many economies were on recovery (Fernández-Guadaño & Sarria-Pedroza, 2018). During this period, many of the soldiers and civilians who sustained life-changing injuries were unable to provide for themselves. As such, they would rely on support from charitable organizations within their communities. Many large corporations that survived the war realized that they had a role to play to protect these veterans. They started making direct donations to charitable organizations to help them support those who were affected by the war.
It is important to note that during this period, companies were not under pressure to give back to society. It was a case where these firms realized that they had a role to play in protecting the vulnerable in society (Zhang, Ma,& Morse, 2018). Their donations went to specific organizations such as the Red Cross, local hospitals and homes for the elderly and veterans, the Red Crescent, and Young Mens Christian Association (YMCA). These organizations had won the trust of these large corporations because of the role they played during the war to help those who were affected in various ways. However, Carroll (2015) admits that during this period, CSR was more of a talk than action. Most of these corporations would publicly make promises that they would not keep just to strengthen their image in the market. It was more of a propaganda tool meant to convince the public that a given firm was concerned about the wellbeing of people. Despite these criticisms, Nakano and Tsuge (2019) note that this was an important period because firms came to realize that they needed the support of the community for them to survive, and that the support would not come unless they demonstrated social responsibility. It was a major step towards the right direction.
Proliferation of CSR Practices in the 1960s
Scholars have classified the 1960s as the period of CSR proliferation. It became increasingly evident for these companies that they needed to do more for their immediate communities. Andrews (1973) explains that one of the issues that became evident was the fact that security of these companies could not be guaranteed without the support of the immediate community. A trend was emerging where companies would be targeted during civil unrest (Sial, Zheng, Khuong, Khan, & Usman,2018). During this period, social unrest caused by civil rights movement and other political campaigns were common in the United States. People took advantage of the unrest to vent their frustration towards business entities that they viewed as being exploitative. Such attacks would result into massive losses, and sometimes a firms operations would be paralyzed for a while. Companies realized that they needed to develop a close relationship with the locals as a way of winning their trust. Engaging actively in various corporate social responsibilities was considered as a way of addressing the hatred and mistrust. The strategy was meant to create an enabling environment for large corporations to achieve sustainable growth.
It was also during this period that scholars started giving a serious focus to the concept of corporate social responsibility. According to Carroll (2015), it became evident to academicians that CSR was gaining popularity as a business model that needed to be investigated. One of the important business thinkers of that time who defined the concept of corporate social responsibility and its significance to companies and the society was Clarence Walton (Agudo-Valiente, Garcés-Ayerbe, & Salvador-Figueras, 2017). He was specifically interested in understanding why organizations were increasingly concerned about CSR initiatives. In his publications, he explained fundamentals of social responsibility and what entities needed to understand before embracing them. In their investigation, the concept of voluntarism emerged (Gangi, Salerno, Meles, & Daniele, 2019). Voluntarism was used in defining CSR because firms were expected to undertake these social initiatives without any form of coercion. They had to understand the fact that their expenditure may not result into direct financial benefits in form of instant profits. However, the initiatives would help promote sustainable growth.
Acceleration of CSR in the 1970s
The 1970s was a period when companies targeted their CSR initiatives to address specific concerns in the society. Table 1 below identifies specific issues that most of these companies focused on during this period. One of the fundamental issues was hiring of the minority groups. The United States was going through a tough period of civil rights movement and many large corporations considered it necessary to hire minority groups, especially the African Americans (Tang, Ma, Wong, & Miao, 2018). Such an initiative was considered giving back to the society. At that time, there was a belief that employing African Americans would help in fighting crime within the country. Studies had indicated that the high level of criminal activities in black neighborhoods was as a result of lack of employment (Carroll, 2015). Hiring African American was seen as an initiative that helps in fighting these social vices. Minority training was another initiative common during that period. Once the minority groups were hired, these companies spent significant amount of resources to train and empower them (Tsai & Mutuc, 2020). The goal was to ensure that they had the capacity to deliver the expected outcome without struggling.
Environmental concerns had started emerging though the concepts of global warming and climate change were not clearly understood at that time. Companies were interested in ensuring that their facilities do not pollute the environment. As such, they invested in waste treatment plants as a way of curbing pollution. They also invested in tree planting initiatives because of the concern of deforestation during the period.
Hard-core hiring and training was another major CSR initiative during this period (Andrews, 1973). Many companies often avoid hiring individuals with criminal records as a way of protecting their workers, managers, and customers. However, some corporations started taking the initiatives of taking these hard-core criminals from the streets, training them, then offering them job opportunities. Their goal was to help them overcome their criminal past by creating income opportunities for them.
Urban renewal also emerged as another initiative for these companies (Choongo, 2017). It involved supporting urban authorities in their infrastructural developments, especially those that targeted sewerage management system, transport network, communication, and security management. Some of these firms also found it relevant to support civil rights movement initiatives by creating equal opportunity for people irrespective of their color, religion, gender, or any other demographical factor (Carroll, 2015). However, it was an emotive issue at that time and only a few firms were willing to embrace these initiatives, as shown in the table below. Of all the initiatives discussed above, it was the least common because of its controversial nature.
Source (Carroll, 2015).
Emergence of Complementary Themes to CSR in the 1980s
The period of 1980s was classified as the acceleration of corporate social responsibility. According to Hyun, Yang, Jung, and Hong (2016), before this period, many multinational corporations concentrated their CSR activities in their home countries, especially in Europe and North America. They believed that most of the overseas markets, especially in parts of Asia and Africa, did not understand the relevance of CSR and as such, it was not worth spending on them. Although firms have come to appreciate the significance of these initiatives, they will always try to avoid spending on projects that do not result into direct income (Carroll, 2015). Given opportunity, they will avoid social responsibilities that do not bring direct financial progress. It explains why these firms spent significant amount of their resources in Europe and North America and ignored some parts of the world. The 1980s also marked a major milestone as these corporations developed unique mechanisms of engaging in these activities. It became part of their annual budget.
Scholars also made major steps in explaining the concept of corporate social responsibility and its relevance to various stakeholders. According to Becchetti, Ciciretti, and Conzo (2020), it was during this period that scholars started linking CSR with ethics. A firm takes a lot from the community within which it operates. It relies on the community for workers, customers, and suppliers. The community also provides the security that it needs to operate normally (Amor-Esteban, Galindo-Villardón, & David, 2018). A firms operations often lead to environmental degradation, especially if it is in the manufacturing sector. Those in the agricultural sector may encroach into forests as they seek to expand. The immediate community will directly be affected by these negative impacts on the environment. It is an ethical requirement for such a firm to give back to the society (Carroll, 2015). Such initiatives are meant to demonstrate to the community that the management of the firm understands how its operations affect the local and that it is willing to do something about it. Direct benefits extended to the community are an appreciation of the support offered.
CSR as a Base-point for Corporations Complementary Themes in the 1990s
The 1990s was characterized with major socio-economic success and political stability in the United States. The fear associated with the Cold War was finally over and many corporations experienced economic growth (Carroll, 2015). The economic prosperity made it more evident that firms had to get involved in CSR activities. Most of these corporations were making impressive profits as they expanded their operations beyond the United States. As such, there was a genuine attempt for these firms to give back to the society. It became obvious that supporting initiatives such as universal education would help the society (Godos-Díez, Cabeza-García, & Fernández-González, 2018). Children from poor families will have the opportunity to go to school and gain skills needed in the workplace. Instead of becoming criminals within the neighborhood, they would become constructive citizens working in these organizations. The corporations would directly benefit from their philanthropic activities by having skilled workers in the community and economically empowered people who can afford to purchase their products. The level of crime would go down significantly within the country.
Many companies started viewing corporate social responsibility as a base-point for complementary themes during this period. According to Lu, Zhao, and Dai (2018), CSR had become a basic initiative expected of every major firm. Although there was no pressure from external stakeholders to engage in such programs, it had become the new normal (Malik, Wang, Naseem, Ikram, & Ali, 2020). Firms were investing in different initiatives, from environmental protection to supporting the financially challenged in the society. It was common to see two or more companies coming together to address a given major social concern as a unit. During major disasters, large corporations such as the Coca Cola Company, General Motors, and PepsiCo would make major donations to charitable organizations to help in addressing the problem. As Carroll (2015) puts it, firms became socially responsible members of the society, willing to engage in activities meant to promote welfare of people.
Corporate Social Responsibility in the Twenty-First Century
In the twenty-first century, corporate social responsibility has evolved to become an integral part of a firms normal operations. According to Sarfraz, Qun, Abdullah, and Alvi (2018), CSR has transformed from being activities that firms conduct at will and with extra income they have to being one of the primary aspects of marketing. Brand promotion is taking a new approach in the twenty-first century. Although using traditional approaches of promotion are still common, they are growing less effective because of the shifting attention of the audience. The numerous advertisements in both mass and social media platforms have become nuisance to the targeted audience, especially when they are brought in between entertainment or news broadcasting (Carroll, 2015). As such, the audience tends to ignore the message. Moreover, they want to identify with specific brands and firs based on what they have done to the environment or the immediate community. These changes have brought about a situation where CSR is considered part of marketing. Firms have to budget for these initiatives, just like they do to other promotional campaign programs (Margolis & Walsh, 2003). The management of large companies is aware that the only way of getting the attention of the targeted audience in the modern society is to get involved in initiatives considered socially beneficial.
Studies about corporate social responsibility have increased over the years because of the attention it has received from different scholars. George (2015) explains that currently, there is an emerging concern about the emphasis that firms put in influencing the perception of customers. According to Singh, Sethuraman, and Lam (2017), in marketing, perception of customers towards a brand and a product defines their purchasing pattern. When faced with two products that apparently offer the same value, it is more likely that a customer will choose the brand that is perceived to be superior. Large corporations are more concerned about the perception of their customers towards their CSR initiatives than the actual benefits that these initiatives have. As they increase their budget on CSR activities, these firms are also investing heavily in related publicity.
The Coca Cola Company has been running a highly publicized campaign of eliminating plastic bottles from the sea and landfills for recycling as a way of fighting environmental degradation (Vale, Bertuzi, & Monteiro, 2020). Some scholars believe that it would be more beneficial for the firm to find eco-friendly bottles and eliminate the use of plastic bottles than to spend part of its resources in the collection of plastic bottles. The firm has done very little to move towards environmentally sustainable packaging (Z ukauskas, Vveinhardt, & Andriukaitiene, 2018). As such, one can question the authenticity of its highly publicized CSR campaigns that focus on environmental conservation. Some of these loopholes in the CSR implementation are caused by the self-regulatory and voluntary nature of the programs. These firms have the freedom to engage in these activities in ways they consider appropriate.
Pros and Cons of Corporate Social Responsibility
It is important to note that corporate social responsibility has its pros and cons. When an organization is planning to engage in CSR activities, it must first define the action and determine how it would impact specific individuals and the environment in general. The goal is always to engage in activities that will be beneficial to the firm and the society. In this section, the researcher discusses benefits and challenges associated with CSR.
Benefits of Corporate Social Responsibility
Corporate social responsibility has become a common practice in many companies around the world. According to Reinhardt, Stavins, and Vietor (2008), this concept has gained massive popularity because of its relevance. The practice benefits various stakeholders. It may be necessary to start by discussing how it benefits a firm. Matten and Moon (2008) argue that in the modern society where people and bombarded with all sorts of advertisements, companies can no longer rely on traditional promotional campaign models to strength their brands. CSR offers a perfect solution to this problem (Scherer & Palazzo, 2007). When a firm sponsors a CSR activity, it gets an opportunity to increase its brand presence within the community. The audience will not view it as a campaign even when it is aired on the local radio and television stations. These programs also offer a firm a good opportunity to conduct a market research because of the physical interaction between a companys employees and customers. Through such interactions, it is possible for the firm to understand customers perception about the firms brand, the quality of its products, the approach of product delivery, and any other issue of interest that can enable the company to serve its clients in a better way. Some of the comments that the public may make about the company and its products during the CSR may also help the management to identify issues that need to be addressed.
Conducting regular CSR activities within a given area endears the company to that particular community as long as it is done consistently and the primary intention of solving a specific problem within the community (Gouda, 2017). It creates the perception that the firm is not just interested in making profits but also in promoting the wellbeing of members of the society. Such people are likely to become loyal customers who cannot be easily swayed to purchase products from other firms. CSR offers a firm an opportunity to clean up the environment within which it operates to make it more sustainable. It is the responsibility of the local government authorities to protect, preserve, and maintain a clean environment (Antonaras & Dekoulou, 2019). However, sometimes the authority may be overwhelmed because of various constraints. Through these programs, an organization will have an opportunity to support the local authority in protecting the environment.
Corporate social responsibility is beneficial to the environment. According to Froholdt (2018), it is evident that global warming and climate change is a reality and the global society cannot ignore it any longer. Massive plastic pollution and industrial effluent is also chocking the earth. Many large corporations are now focusing on environmental protection in their CSR initiatives. Tree planting has become a popular practice around the world. It has also become a common practice for these firms to support projects that focus on conserving forests and aquatic ecosystem (Malecki, 2018). Other entities such as PepsiCo and the Coca Cola Company have invested in the collection and recycling of plastic wastes all over the world. General Electric, Telsa Motors, and Amazon.com are investing in projects meant to reduce emission from companies and cars (Emeagwali, 2017). These initiatives are meant to reduce carbon emission into the atmosphere as a way of fighting global warming and climate change.
Corporate social responsibility programs often help the targeted community in various ways. Microsoft, working closely with charitable organizations such as Plan International, Action Aid, and World Vision, has invested millions of dollars in East Africa to fight malaria (Malecki, 2018). Before these initiatives were introduced in 1999, child mortality rate was high in the region, and it was mostly attributed to the malaria. These partners have worked closely with local authorities to help fight the disease. They helped in stocking the local health care facilities with testing kits and malaria drugs. They have also promoted preventive measures such clearing breeding ground of mosquito. In India, the Coca Cola Company has invested millions of dollars in educating children, especially girls, from poor background (Malecki, 2018). The organization was concerned about the high rate of teenage pregnancy in some part of the country and the lack of concern from the local authorities. These initiatives have helped empower women in this country. Most of them even ended up getting jobs at the company after completing their education. United States Hunger Relief Organization has been receiving massive support from various organizations to help feed homeless Americans (Emeagwali, 2017). Some of these people cannot afford decent meals, and the nutritional support they get helps them stay healthy.
The government often benefits directly from CSR programs that various corporations conduct on a regular basis. According to Froholdt (2018), it is the primary responsibility of every government around the world to ensure that all children have access to quality education. However, that is not always the case in different parts of the world. In Africa and parts of Asia, government is unable to provide educational infrastructure for learners in public schools. Various multinational corporations have sponsored construction of classrooms in these countries, taking the burden from the government. Others are paying school fees to learners in public schools, which should be the responsibility of the government. Initiatives such as construction, expansion, or improving waste management systems, planting of trees, cleaning of the environment, and fighting crime are responsibilities of the government (Malecki, 2018). When these organizations use their own resources to support the programs, the government can use its income to support other projects.
Challenges and Dangers Associated with Corporate Social Responsibility
Corporate social responsibility has some challenges and dangers that companies need to understand before deciding on the initiative that it needs to embrace. One of the major challenges associated with CSR is an expense that may not have an equal financial return. As Antonaras and Dekoulou (2019) observe, it involves giving back to the society without any expectations. Most of the expenses of companies are often focused on addressing specific problems that would increase its profitability. However, that is not the case with CSR. For instance, the global society is currently battling the COVID 19 pandemic and companies have been invited to make donations. As the number of companies making donations increase, it becomes almost impossible for any individual firm to gain popularity out of such donations. It explains why it is often advisable for a firm to set aside specific fund for such programs on an annual basis.
Regular engagement in CSR activities creates a sense of entitlement. According to Olkkonen and Quarshie (2019), when an organization commits to paying school feels for learners from financially challenged families, there is always the risk of the beneficiaries developing a sense of entitlement. They start feeling that it is the responsibility o
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